Our society has known an alarming increase in the number of reports of aggression and criminal behaviour lately. Rape, murder, sexual molestation, paedophilia to name a few... Aggression, a form of antisocial behaviour, is defined as ?any form of behaviour aimed at the partial or total destruction of an object or person? (Moyer, 1968). What incites individuals to act in an antisocial way? It is believed that individuals with deviant behaviour have a genetic predisposition, but for this potential to be released, there need be environmental triggering factors.

It is also reported that antisocial behaviour has its roots in early childhood and that certain events occurring during that time can increase an individual?s vulnerability. Such factors include insecure attachment to parental figures, low self-esteem, a dysfunctional family, physical, emotional, sexual or psychological abuse, death of a parent, parents abusing illegal substances, promiscuity, low family income, parental divorce and low academic achievement (Harrower, 1998).

The psychological impact of those factors can be tremendous including depression, anxiety, severe stress, suicidal tendencies and a loss of self worth eventually leading to violence, abuse and crime. However, this is not to say that all individuals who have been brought up in such vulnerable conditions will become criminals or abusers. Individual differences do prevail.

Man is born with a variety of instincts to ensure his survival. Most of us are taught socially acceptable behaviour and we learn to suppress unacceptable behaviour in our shadow. The psychoanalytical concept of the shadow or an individual?s dark side has been defined by Carl Jung as ?the animal instinct part of the psyche that one unconsciously tries to hide from others? (Psychologies, 2006).

Violent outbursts are part of the shadow and substances such as alcohol and drugs that lower inhibitions can encourage the shadow to surface. Since the dark side of an individual is not integrated into the psyche, it is often destructive (Daniels, 2006) and without social skills, empathy and self-control, it is not possible for individuals to manage their behaviour.

Murderers, rapists and paedophiles are classified as psychopaths or sociopaths who are unable to manage their anger, frustration and impulsivity and who lack empathy. They have been categorised into four types. There are the visionary types, whose visions and voices guide their actions; the mission-oriented types who believe that they have to remove certain groups in society; the hedonistic types who derive pleasure or gain from killing or abusing and the power-oriented types who enjoy controlling their victims with some sexual satisfaction (Holmes & DeBurger, 1988).

Serious crimes are committed by individuals whose personalities do not conform to the norms accepted by society. Aggression is also a result of frustration (Berkowitz, 1978). Frustration caused by obstruction in an individual?s goal directed activity does not necessarily lead to aggression but produces a readiness to aggression which, if triggered, can lead to aggressive acts. The trigger can be a minor element such as a joke, gesture or mild criticism which, to the frustrated individual, is enough to produce an aggressive reaction (Social Issues Research Centre, 2004).

In addition, aggression is a process learnt through behaviour modelling (Bandura, 1976). Aggressive responses are learnt through observation. According to a report by CNN in 2003, individuals who watched violent films on television as children behaved more aggressively that those who did not even 15 years later. The study revealed that violent TV viewing at 6 to 9 was eventually linked to spouse abuse and criminal convictions in the individual?s early 20s.

Children also tend to model the behaviour of their parents or caregivers and use the same aggressive gestures as adults. Those children who displayed deviant behaviour in childhood experienced peer rejection and low self-esteem and by the age of 19 a large percentage were unemployed and into drugs (Sutton & al, 2006). Those who become serious and violent offenders often have a history of persistent, antisocial behaviour in their childhood.

Degradation in moral values also aggravates the situation. A lack of human values such as respect, integrity, responsibility, tolerance, equality, justice among others can lead to society going downhill. With rapid economic growth and women?s empowerment, both parents work and come back home late, with children being left to themselves. Less time is available to monitor children and teach them to differentiate between what is right and wrong. This is certainly not to blame parents because they are faced with their own dilemmas. However, sufficient time must be allocated to develop, through moral education, an empathetic recognition of those around us.

To respect those around him/her, an individual needs to have respect for himself/herself in the first place. Each child?s self-esteem needs to be nurtured and a warm and loving bond of attachment with the parents can help children to grow up securely. Parental management training including authoritative parenting (high control and affection) can help parents to bring up their child and give them the best possible start in life.

Flexi-time is another alternative to allow spending sufficient time with children and fulfilling childcare commitments. Moreover, the fostering of human values and rules by parents, school and society as a whole and firm supervision of children?s whereabouts and activities can be other measures towards preventive action. Strong school ethos is extremely important along with opportunities for children to be involved in community issues from an early age (Sutton & al, 2006).

Victims of abuse may benefit from counselling to help them deal with the trauma so that they do not internalize negative feelings and eventually take their anger and revenge out on innocent individuals. Since prolonged stress can cause severe emotional distress and compel individuals to act in socially unacceptable ways, adults experiencing marital, financial or job-related difficulties may also benefit from counselling by a trained person in whom they can confide and who can provide support and help them to untangle their thoughts and feelings and help them develop their ability to cope. Functional family therapy may be another intervention. Naturally there are groups in society such as psychopaths and sociopaths who would need totally different interventions. Parents, teachers, religious leaders, politicians, the media, etc. all have a role to play and preventive and rehabilitative actions must go hand in hand with law enforcement.

Doreyya MOHUNGOO Health psychologist