Most individuals have been through different sets of life experiences during their childhood and these experiences may have left a sign, whether positive or negative, upon the way they feel about themselves. Young children are very vulnerable to the events that occur around them and an unfortunate number of them, across the world, are faced with traumatic experiences. Trauma is defined as a psychologically distressing event that often leaves a sense of intense fear, terror or helplessness (Child Trauma Academy, 2005). For some individuals, their trauma has been physical or sexual while, for others, the ordeal may have been emotional in the type of verbal abuse, criticism and neglect.

In the past, sexual abuse was considered as the most destructive of all types of abuse but, more recently, research has shown that all forms of childhood trauma can be devastating for the victim (Kennerley, 2000). Boys and girls are both at risk and can be of any age and the abuser can either be male or female. Abuse can be intentional or unintentional while the abuser can be close to the child or a stranger. Moreover, the occurrence of abuse may be single or multiple (Kennerley, 2000) and the abuser?s motives may vary ? some may be of sexual purposes while others may be driven by control, power or curiosity.

Pain inflicted intentionally on a child doesn?t need to be physical. Harm can include verbal abuse in the form of criticism, comparison and threats. These can sometimes be more harmful than physical abuse especially if they are repetitive. A child who grows up frequently with screaming and criticisms and belittling such as ?you are stupid? or ?you are useless? starts to view him/herself in a negative light since these negative comments fix themselves in his/her subconscious mind. Even if at a later stage, the individual realises that his parents were unfair or trying to drive him to greater success that will not be enough to undo the damage (Markham, 1998).

Similarly, comparison can make children over-conscious of their differences, making them believe that certain personality or talents are more desirable. Comparing children to their siblings or friends can damage self-esteem and self-concept. Threats can also be destructive to the child?s identity. Children are very trusting until they learn from experience that they should not be so (Markham, 1998). Telling a child that he will be sent away from the family home or that ?Mummy will no longer love you? because of his/her misbehaviour can trigger real fear. Moreover, threats of physical violence can be terrifying even if the violence does not take place.

Maltreatment also occurs in the form of physical abuse. This is defined as the infliction of harm, resulting in physical injury, on a child by a parent or caregiver. Physical abuse is not always intentional, and may occur in the context of disciplinary methods (Child Trauma Academy, 2005). Such a subject has given rise to much controversy, since at what point does child rearing behaviour cross the line into the domain of child abuse? Physical abuse can mean cuts, bites, fractures and behaviours such as hitting with closed fists, burning, suffocating, drowning, shaking, choking, and stabbing (Child Trauma Academy, 2005). Certain indicators may suggest physical abuse, for example, the child is frightened of physical contact with adults, is afraid to go home and overly fearful of authority figures. Disturbingly, chronic physical abuse can lead to physical disabilities such as brain, ear or eye damage and in extreme cases death.

Sexual abuse is more widespread than it is thought but the number of unreported instances is greater because children are afraid of disclosing the episodes. Sexual abuse includes fondling of a child?s private parts, intercourse, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism and commercial exploitation (Focus Adolescent Services, 2003). Usually, the abuser is a relative or close family friend, someone whom the child trusts. With the occurrence of sexual abuse, the child can develop agonising thoughts and feelings and dysfunctional behaviour.

A child of five or older who knows and cares for the abuser may become caught between feelings of affection for the abuser and an awareness that sexual activities are extremely wrong (Focus Adolescent Services, 2003). Should the child try to break away from the relationship, the abuser may threaten the child with cruelty or loss of affection (Kennerley, 2000). The victim may experience an array of negative emotions such as fear, pain and guilt. Often, the child will experience the latter since the abuser may warn him/her not to tell anyone since it is his/her fault and that no one will believe him/her.

There are traumatic events, which are accidental in nature and do not involve ill-will on anyone?s part but which will still be distressing on the child (Markham, 1998). Such situations may include illness, accidents, death, separation or divorce. The loss of a parent through illness, accidents or natural death can be the most devastating experiences that can happen to any child. Feelings of shock and disbelief are not uncommon. Separation and divorce are also traumatic and even if the child doesn?t express this viewpoint to anyone at the particular time, most children believe that they are in one way or another responsible for the break up of their parents? marriage (Markham, 1998). Children are very sensitive to family/home environment and are conscious that something is wrong.

Sexual abuse is more widespread than it is thought but the number of unreported instances is greater because children are afraid of disclosing the episodes. Usually the abuser is a relative or close family friend, someone who the child trusts.

Depending on the severity, frequency and nature of traumatic events, at least half of all children exposed may develop significant psychological symptoms (Schwarz, and Perry, 1994). Reactions to trauma may appear instantly after the trauma, days or weeks later and symptoms may vary from individual to individual depending on characteristics distinctive to the individual and the traumatic event. Children may become fixated at a stage of development or regress to a previous stage. Young children may experience separation anxiety (whereby they become distressed when separated from their caregiver), nightmares, sleeping problems, thumb sucking, bedwetting, fear of darkness, and withdrawal from interactions. The damage may also be apparent during adolescence when victims usually develop low self-esteem, feelings of worthlessness, inability to trust, anxiety, depression, alcohol abuse, post traumatic stress disorder, sexual promiscuity or dysfunction, statements that their body is dirty or damaged and suicidal thoughts and behaviour among others. Sadly, many abused children become abusing adults.

Can the damage be undone? Indeed, victims of abuse can benefit from counselling and psychotherapy to help them deal with the trauma so that they do not internalize negative feelings and eventually take their anger and revenge out on innocent individuals. We also need to remember the importance of raising children with love, affection and security within a stable environment. Without doubt, every child is entitled to protection and care.

<B> Doreyya MOHUNGOO</B> Health Psychologist